- Historical Roots and Evolution
- A territory of Princely States to Partitioned land
Dr. Deepak Kapoor
The history of Jammu & Kashmir and PoJK is marked by the rise and fall of dynasties, conquests, and treaties, culminating in the partition of 1947, which reshaped territorial boundaries and laid the foundation for contemporary political realities. Volumes have been penned down on the subject, and here again is a recollection of facts on the day when a clan was forced to leave its home, marked with large-scale carnage, the 22nd October.
Jammu & Kashmir and Pakistan-occupied Jammu & Kashmir (PoJK) have diverse terrain. It extends from fertile valleys to rugged mountains, which has profoundly influenced the development of its societies, economies, and political structures over the centuries. Understanding this historical evolution is essential to appreciate the complex cultural, social, and geopolitical landscape of the region today. Geography and strategic location shaped the earliest known settlements in the Kashmir Valley and Jammu hills.
Valleys and river plains in the Kashmir region supported agriculture and small principalities, while the surrounding mountains offered natural fortifications to local chieftains. In the valley, ancient dynasties such as the Kashyapas and Gonandas ruled (4th-12th century CE), laying the foundation for administrative structures and cultural development. Trade routes connecting Kashmir to Punjab, Tibet, and Central Asia facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and religious traditions, including Hinduism and Buddhism, which deeply influenced the social and cultural fabric of the region. From the 14th century onwards, Kashmir experienced a period of sustained Muslim rule with the establishment of the Shah Mir dynasty (1339-1561). This dynasty consolidated power in the valley, introducing new administrative practices, coinage systems, and Islamic scholarship, while patronising arts and architecture. The Mughal Empire (1586-1752) later brought Kashmir under its influence, and the region became renowned for its gardens, shawls, and trade. Afghan governors (1752-1819) subsequently ruled Kashmir from the mid-18th century, imposing heavy taxation and often inciting local rebellions.
The Jamwal Rajputs, later known as the Dogras, trace their ancestry to Raja Jamboo Lochan, believed to have lived around the fourteenth century B.C. He founded the city of “Jamboo,” named after himself, which gradually became “Jammu.” This region remained the traditional seat of the Dogras for centuries. Maharaja Gulab Singh was the founder of the modern princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. A descendant of Raja Dhruv Dev (who ruled Jammu from about 1703 to 1733), Gulab Singh was born on October 21, 1792, in Jammu. Trained in warfare and strategy by his grandfather, Mian Zorawar Singh, he joined Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s service at the Lahore Darbar. His courage and tactical skill quickly earned him recognition, and in 1822, Ranjit Singh granted him the title of Raja of Jammu. He established the largest princely state in British India and ruled Jammu and Kashmir till 1857.
During this period, the Jammu hills were ruled by semi-independent Dogra Rajput chiefs who maintained fortresses, local militias, and ties with powerful empires. Their constant engagement in regional affairs gave them the administrative and military experience that would later help unify the region. Under the leadership of Gulab Singh, General Zorawar Singh (1821-1841) led campaigns that expanded Dogra influence across the Himalayas, capturing Kishtwar, Ladakh, Baltistan, and even temporarily parts of western Tibet. These campaigns demonstrated remarkable logistical and military skill, enabling the Dogras to consolidate territories and establishing the princely state of Jammu & Kashmir.
The Treaty of Amritsar in 1846 formalized this consolidation. After the First Anglo-Sikh War, the British defeated the Sikh Empire, and the Treaty of Lahore ceded Kashmir to British control. The British then gave Kashmir to Gulab Singh officially recognizing him as the Maharaja of Jammu & Kashmir. This treaty established the boundaries of a princely state that encompassed Jammu, Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and Baltistan, and it marked the beginning of Dogra administration that would last for over a century. Gulab Singh and his successors maintained a delicate balance, integrating diverse regions and populations while navigating the influence of the British Empire.
During Dogra rule (1846-1947), the administration of Jammu & Kashmir faced the challenges of governing a vast and geographically diverse territory. Centralized bureaucracy was introduced to oversee taxation, law, and order, while local leaders were co-opted to ensure loyalty in remote areas.
The economy relied heavily on agriculture, with rice, wheat, and orchards forming the backbone, supplemented by crafts such as shawl weaving, carpet making, and timber trade. The Dogra rulers also patronized temples, shrines, and cultural festivals, preserving the region’s Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist traditions. Despite these efforts, harsh winters, rugged terrain, and occasional rebellions, particularly in the Kashmir Valley, made governance complex and often difficult.
The events of 1947 dramatically reshaped the region. In October of that year, the Pakistan army disguised as tribals and invaded Kashmir, seeking to capture the princely state. Pakistan’s army launched Operation Gulmarg in October 1947 with the aim to capture Srinagar, the winter capital of the princely state, and to force the accession of the state to Pakistan. The operation began on 22 October 1947, when thousands of Pakistan’s soldiers and military officers camouflaged as Pashtun tribesmen crossed into Kashmir through Muzaffarabad. They looted and killed civilians along the way, creating chaos in the region. Maharaja Hari Singh, the Dogra ruler at the time, faced a dire situation and appealed to India for help. By signing the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947, he formally joined Jammu & Kashmir to the Indian Union, a decision that he had been planning for quite some time. Indian troops were airlifted into Srinagar the next day, marking the beginning of the first Indo-Pak war (1947-48). Operation Gulmarg thus became a turning point in the history of Jammu and Kashmir, which led to a United Nations-brokered ceasefire in 1949, establishing the Line of Control (LoC) and dividing the former princely state. Districts such as Mirpur, Muzaffarabad, Poonch, Gilgit and Baltistan came under Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, now referred to as PoJK.
The legacy of Dogra rule and the events of partition continue to shape the region today. The historical consolidation of diverse territories, administrative experiments, and cultural integration provide essential context for understanding both the political complexities and social dynamics of Jammu & Kashmir and PoJK. The partition not only defined modern borders but also created enduring geopolitical, economic, and social challenges. This historical foundation paves the way for understanding the geography, demographics, and cultural heritage of the region.
(The writer is President, PoJK Visthapit Sewa Samiti)
